What the Numbers Say About Gender Differences: Data on abilities reveal a great deal of overlap for men and women

Writing below (from the WSJ), EUGENIA CHENG offers a good primer on the subject of sex differences in IQ.  When one gets little more than ill-informed raves from Leftists, Dr. Cheng is to be congratulated for her cool reason.

Her basic point is that differences in abilities do exist but are mostly too small to be important.  And she tackles the one question within the field that is undoubtedly important:  Differences in mathematical ability.  All psychometricians cheerfully agree that women are better in verbal ability.  Men regularly lose arguments with their wives. But the shortage of women in STEM fields does seem to be of concern, perhaps because of the high prestige and good pay of some jobs in those fields

So the big point in her article is the small difference in math ability scores shown in the findings by Janet Hyde.  I am afraid, however that the Hyde findings cannot be accepted uncritically.  Her findings make little allowance for the importance of age in these studies.  Using the Progressive Matrices, Lynn and Irwing showed a vast gap in ability among adults but almost no difference among children up to age 14. Adolescents aged 15 to 19 were intermediate. 

Most studies of mathematical ability do not separate out age in that way so much of the variability in their results can be attributed to that failure.  But the important thing is that  Hyde's reliance on a great grab-bag of ages in her tabulations makes her work largely irrelevant.  If she really wanted to get at adult differences, she should have studied adult differences alone.  Some genetic studies reveal in fact that genetic differences don't reveal themselves fully until around age 30.

At any event, to cut a long story short, if the age differences shown in the PM's are reflected in mathematical ability, we would expect only small differences between males and females in initial enrolments in mathematical courses, followed by very large achievement gaps in the long slow grind through university studies and into the professions.  And that is roughly what we find.  The male-female difference in mathematical ability is definitely non-trivial

But what makes it non-trivial?  In her final paragraph, Dr Cheng makes the challenging point that "it is logically flawed to infer a biological difference from a statistical difference". But if not that which?  The twin studies are certainly univocal:  The ability gap is inborn.  A genetic difference may not be inferable from the studies she quotes but many other studies do indicate a genetic basis for the differences


IN 2005 LAWRENCE SUMMERS, then the president of Harvard, caused an uproar by appearing to suggest that the lack of women professors in math and science might arise from biological differences. Fifteen years on, a gender imbalance in these fields persists and the arguments rage on. I believe math can help us to progress. The discipline of math involves, among other things, ironing out ambiguities and providing clear definitions for comparisons. Men and women are not homogenous groups of people who all behave in the same way, so we need ways to understand whole sets of data.

Averages are one well-known way; we can compare how men and women do at something “on average.” There are different types of averages: The mean is where we add up all results and divide by the total number of people, and the median is the 50th percentile that tells us that half the people rank above it and half rank below. For example, the mean height of men in the U.S. is 5 feet 9 inches, and for women it is 5 inches less, but plenty of women are taller than plenty of men. Averages don’t tell us much about differences among entire sets of data because they neglect how widely the data are spread. That spread of data can be studied via the standard deviation, which is calculated from the distance that each data point ranges from the mean. For a standard bell curve, a distance of “one standard deviation” on ei- ther side of the mean always comprises a fixed proportion of the results, around 70%.

The standard deviation for height is around 2.5 inches, so the mean heights of men and women are about two standard deviations apart. Thus, around 95% of women are shorter than the average for men, but there is still a noticeable overlap. For data sets that differ by one standard deviation or less, there is more substantial overlap. Average marathon times for men and women differ by about 30 minutes, for instance. That sounds like a lot, but is only half the standard deviation of one hour—and the fastest women run marathons twice as fast as average men.

Height and running times are particularly easy to measure, but men and women have also been compared in broader areas of behavior, such as mathematical skills, aggression and self-esteem. In 2005, Jane Shibley Hyde collated a large collection of meta-analyses of these differences. In her book “Inferior,” Angela Saini sums up the results: “In every case, except for throwing distance and vertical jumping, females are less than one standard deviation apart from males. On many measures, they are less than a tenth of a standard deviation apart, which is indistinguishable in everyday life.” For example, “mathematics problem solving” was found to be better in men by just 0.08 standard deviations; interestingly, women were found to outperform men at “mathematics concepts” by 0.03 standard deviations.

Men showed more self-esteem by a range of 0.04 to 0.21 standard deviations, increasing through adolescence; they were found more likely to make “intrusive interruptions” by 0.33 standard deviations. The differences may be interesting, but they are also very small. The differences within each gender are greater than the differences between genders, so gender is not a good predictor of these behaviors. Such comparisons are blurred, of course, by issues beyond the reach of mathematics. Many of the behaviors studied are much harder to define and measure than height or marathon times and involve some mix of biological and sociological influences. But it is logically flawed to infer a biological difference from a statistical difference. Mathematics provides us with powerful tools, but we have to know their uses and limits.

SOURCE 





Debunking 10 Myths About the US Postal Service

In 2020, we’re used to seeing falsehoods and misinformation spreading like wildfire online. Typically, they’re linked to breaking news, hot-button social issues, or scandals.

The biggest focal point for online political drama today is an unlikely one; namely, the U.S. Postal Service. Representatives from both parties, conspiracy theorists, and even singer Taylor Swift are weighing in on the unsexy subject of mail.

Make no mistake: The Postal Service faces real challenges that require congressional action to solve. Yet, while genuine differences exist between the left and the right about how best to address the problems, that’s not an excuse for melodramatic rumor-mongering.

With the House convening a special session specifically to address issues involving the Postal Service, it’s important to separate myths from reality.

MYTH No. 1: The Postal Service is removing sorting machines to sabotage delivery

REALITY: The volume of mail has plunged in recent decades, due to the spread of electronic communication. As a result, the amount of infrastructure needed to manage the flow of mail also has declined.

The Postal Service has been consolidating operations for years to reduce costs, a practice that predates President Donald Trump.

MYTH No. 2: The Postal Service is removing collection boxes to block mail-in ballots.

REALITY: The Postal Service has more than 141,000 blue collection boxes spread across the country. Those boxes are moved regularly from low-demand to high-demand areas to maximize efficiency.

Photos of those boxes on the backs of trucks are part of standard operating procedure, rather than proof of a nefarious, anti-election plot.

Despite that, the Postal Service has decided to pause any further moving of boxes until after the election as a result of the online panic.

MYTH No. 3: The Postal Service is locking collection boxes to prevent public access.

REALITY: Locked caps are sometimes put on collection boxes in areas where there is a rash of mail theft. Employees place the caps after the final pickup of the day and remove them in the morning, since collection box theft is overwhelmingly done at night.

This practice also predates the Trump administration.

MYTH No. 4: The Postal Service could go bankrupt before the election without a $25 billion bailout.

REALITY: Although some were concerned that the COVID-19 pandemic would push the Postal Service over the financial edge, revenues have been stable, thanks to a big increase in package deliveries.

In addition, Congress provided a $10 billion loan to the Postal Service earlier this year.

As a result, there’s virtually no scenario where the Postal Service goes bankrupt this year, meaning that a proposed $25 billion bailout has no reasonable connection to the coming election.

However, Congress shouldn’t view this fact as a reason to be complacent when it comes to passing reforms.

MYTH No. 5: The Postal Service plans to triple postage rates on mailed ballots.

REALITY: The Postal Service provided commonsense guidance to state and local governments regarding how to handle time-sensitive ballot requests. This guidance was already in the works before Postmaster General Louis DeJoy began his job.

Most mail-in ballot requests are made weeks or even months in advance, and thus can safely be sent using low-cost, second-class mail.

However, some places allow for mail-in ballot requests a mere four days before the election. In those situations, it makes sense to use full-cost, first-class mail to ensure that voters get their ballots on time.

The idea that this sensible guidance amounts to extortion by DeJoy should be laughable, except that it has been promoted by the likes of Senate Minority Leader Chuck Schumer, D-N.Y.

MYTH No. 6: Postal Service delivery changes are illegal “sabotage” by the postmaster general.

REALITY: DeJoy, who assumed the postmaster general’s post in June, was selected in large part due to his decades of experience as CEO of New Breed Logistics, a supply chain company.

The logistics industry’s focus is on maximizing cost-efficiency and on-time performance, both of which the Postal Service needs to improve. With that in mind, DeJoy has undertaken initiatives aimed at reducing costs and improving service levels.

It’s too early to tell whether these changes will be successful, and DeJoy has announced a suspension until after the election. While the media reliably reports alarming anecdotes from postal union officials who oppose cost-cutting efforts, data shows that postal performance has not yet experienced a significant change under DeJoy.

Representatives from both parties have expressed disapproval of efforts to pull the Postal Service out of chronic annual deficits.

That’s part of a long-term trend of Congress’ imposing unsustainable mandates for the sake of its own political benefit. Liberating the Postal Service from those mandates would be the best path forward.

MYTH No. 7: The Postal Service needs more money to process mailed ballots.

Leaders of both parties wrongly have suggested that the Postal Service lacks the resources to handle the millions of ballots that will be sent through the mail this year—meaning that it will require additional taxpayer funding.

REALITY: The Postal Service handled about 2.75 billion items per week in 2019, with spikes at various times of the year, such as the holiday season.

Mail-in ballots will represent at most a few percentage points of total volume this fall, even with an expected increase in requests due to COVID-19.

Further, given that regular mail volume has dropped in 2020, the Postal Service has excess processing capacity. It does not need additional resources for the election.

MYTH No. 8: The postmaster general “massacred” Postal Service management.

REALITY: When DeJoy took over in June, there was a modest amount of personnel change within the top levels of Postal Service management. Much of that involved internal promotions. Senior departing staff were replaced by experienced employees.

New leadership at the top of a large organization almost always includes some amount of change underneath, and the Postal Service is no exception.

The change is similar to what happened when previous postmaster generals took over, rather than a heavy-handed “takeover.”

MYTH No. 9: The Constitution requires a government-run Postal Service.

REALITY: Article 1, Section 8 of the Constitution authorizes Congress to establish post offices and to provide for “postal roads.” That doesn’t mean that post offices and roads are mandated, or that badly needed cost savings are a constitutional crisis.

MYTH No. 10: The Postal Service loses money only because of unfair funding requirements.

REALITY: The Postal Service is weighed down by exceedingly high employee compensation costs, which averaged more than $97,000 per worker in 2019. Part of that includes a retiree health plan, which has obligations similar to a pension.

Bipartisan legislation passed in 2006 required that the Postal Service prefund the retiree health plan like a pension plan, with money deposited as an employee earns future benefits. That’s intended to ensure that there’s money to provide for the health coverage when employees retire.

Unfortunately, the Postal Service has failed to uphold its funding obligations, leaving the plan $69 billion in the hole as of last fall.

Furthermore, the Postal Service would have lost more than $4 billion in 2019 alone even if it had not paid a penny into the health plan.

Claims that the health benefit prefunding is “unfair” ignore the fact that retiree health benefits are uncommon (especially outside government) and ignore the fact that postal employees are entitled to the benefits.

One alternative to prefunding is allowing the health plan to accumulate massive liabilities, which would guarantee an even bigger financial crisis than what the Postal Service is already facing.

That would be irresponsible and unfair for both postal employees and taxpayers alike.

The other alternative to prefunding would be to turn the Postal Service into a standard government agency, which is the stated goal of many Democrats.

A federal bailout of the Postal Service would be the first step toward placing yet another massive burden on U.S. taxpayers.

Rather than allowing costs and deficits to grow unchecked, Congress should pass reforms that would enable the Postal Service to raise revenue and lower costs, stabilizing its shaky finances.

From there, we should have a robust debate about the future of the Postal Service and whether its current structure makes sense.

Meanwhile, the sooner we stop spreading unfounded rumors about the Postal Service, the more likely we will be to reach agreement on solutions.

SOURCE 






'We are going to show cops were just doing their jobs'

I have said that from the beginning

 Attorney for one of the officers charged in George Floyd's death outlines his defense argument after claiming the black man killed himself by overdosing on fentanyl

The attorney for one of the Minneapolis police officers charged in George Floyd's killing says he's going to prove the cops were just doing their jobs after claiming earlier this week that the black man killed himself by overdosing on fentanyl. 

Thomas Lane, 37, is one of the three officers charged with aiding and abetting murder for holding down Floyd's legs during his May 25 fatal arrest.

Another officer, Derek Chauvin, is charged with murder after body cam showed him kneeling on Floyd's neck for nearly nine minutes as he pleaded: 'I can't breathe'.

Lane's attorney Earl Gray, who has been fighting to get the charges dropped, has since outlined his defense argument, saying he doesn't believe there is enough evidence to convict his client.

'We are going to show that my client and the other cops were doing their jobs,' Gray told the Los Angeles Times.

'None of these guys - even Chauvin - actually killed him. He killed himself.'

In a memorandum filed in court on Monday, Gray claimed that Floyd swallowed a 'lethal dose' of fentanyl as he was resisting arrest.

He plans to use that as the basis for his defense argument, saying he will rely on toxicology and autopsy reports and bodycam footage to prove his case.

Legal experts have since said the high-profile case will not be a 'slam dunk' for the prosecution.

'This is not a slam dunk for the prosecution and not an easy case, especially for the higher-degree homicide charges,' Philip Stinson, a Bowling Green State University criminologist, told the outlet.

'If this case goes to trial and an officer testifies on his own behalf, it is possible there is reasonable doubt there for jurors.'

The attorney pointed to bodycam footage of the arrest in which he claims Floyd had a 'white spot on the left side' of his tongue when Lane and another officer first approached him following reports he had used a fake $20 bill to buy cigarettes at a convenience store.

Gray has claimed in the memo that Floyd intentionally ingested '2 milligrams of fentanyl, a lethal dose' after Lane ordered him to put his hands up to be taken into custody.

'All he had to do is sit in the police car, like every other defendant who is initially arrested. While attempting to avoid his arrest, all by himself, Mr Floyd overdosed on Fentanyl,' the filing says.

'Given his intoxication level, breathing would have been difficult at best. Mr Floyd's intentional failure to obey commands, coupled with his overdosing, contributed to his own death.' 

A medical examiner's report and a separate independent autopsy both ruled that Floyd's death was a homicide and that he died from asphyxiation.

The Hennepin County Medical Examiner added in its report that Floyd had 'recent methamphetamine use' and 'fentanyl intoxication' - along with hypertension and coronary artery disease - all of which were possible contributing factors to his death. 

In the court filing, Lane's attorney argued that the neck constraint used by Chauvin was not excessive as he argued that the tissue in Floyd's neck wasn't damaged.

He also pointed to Floyd's criminal background and past alleged drug use as to why his clients charges should be dropped.

Citing a May 2019 arrest in Minneapolis, Gray argued that Floyd had to be physically removed from a car where police found oxycodone, cocaine and rock cocaine.

The court records do not state if Floyd was charged in that arrest.

Lane's attorney has previously argued that Floyd should not have resisted arrest and that he should of obeyed the orders of the officers.

He has also previously said in interviews that it was 'clearly evident' Floyd was 'under the influence of some kind of drug' at the time of his arrest.

Lane was one of the two officers who were first on the scene following the reports that Floyd had attempted to pass a fake $20 bill to buy cigarettes at a convenience store.

Chauvin and a fourth officer, Tou Thao, were called in to assist.

All four officers were fired the day after Floyd's death.

Lane's attorney is expected to argue a case for dismissing the charges against the fired officer during a court hearing scheduled for September 11.

It comes after a Minnesota judge ruled Lane's bodycam footage could be released publicly after DailyMail.com revealed leaked footage.

The judge had previously restricted the viewing of Lane - and Kueng's bodycam footage - allowing it to be viewed only by appointment in the county courthouse.

SOURCE 






Australia: Two black women who flew to Perth from Adelaide without an exemption before sneaking out of hotel quarantine to party with a rapper have vowed to return to the city 'by force' after they were sent home in disgrace

Law-breaking by blacks is very common.  It is a pity that we have to import such behaviour

Isata Jalloh, 19, and Banchi Techana, 22, narrowly avoided jail time after flying into Western Australia on Monday and fleeing the Novotel Hotel to 'hang out with friends' and make the most of their 'vacation'.

The pair left the Murray St hotel via an emergency stairwell at about 1.30am on Tuesday but were caught by police at a unit in Coolbellup, in the south of Perth.

Jalloh and Techana were escorted back to hotel quarantine before making obscene gestures as they were placed on a taxpayer-funded return flight to South Australia on Friday.

Once on the ground in Adelaide, the duo refused to apologise for their selfish behaviour.

'Sorry for what? Did we commit a crime? Did we kill anyone?' Jalloh told Nine News before claiming they had 'no idea' there were travel restrictions in place.

The pair said they also planned to return to Western Australia in two months time, 'once coronavirus is over'. 'We will enter by force,' Jalloh added.

During their trip, the women were told they would need to quarantine before returning to Adelaide after flying into Perth without permission.

The pair instead left quarantine a few hours later and caught a taxi to the party.

Police called Jalloh's mobile phone to ask where the women were but she laughed and hung up on the officer.

The mobile phone signal was then used to track both women to the flat.

The women were arrested at about 8.30am and were taken into custody for two days. 

They appeared in Perth Magistrates Court on Thursday and pleaded guilty to the breach.

Jalloh was handed a $5,000 fine and Techana, who also admitted to obstructing an officer while in custody, was given an eight-month sentence, suspended for 12 months.

WA Police said the women arrived in Perth intending to holiday and visit family but were directed to quarantine until return flights could be arranged.

The court heard Techana, a dancer, had moved to Perth for a 'fresh start' and planned to bring over her one-year-old daughter.

Jalloh's lawyer also argued the 19-year-old had travelled from Queensland to South Australia without self-isolating and did not understand WA's coronavirus measures.

Magistrate Ben White said he believed the women were aware of the border restrictions.

'It's difficult to think anyone in the current climate could be in the dark about those sorts of things,' he said. 'There's risks to health, there's risks of this sort of behaviour resulting in further lockdowns.'

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Political correctness is most pervasive in universities and colleges but I rarely report the  incidents concerned here as I have a separate blog for educational matters.

American "liberals" often deny being Leftists and say that they are very different from the Communist rulers of  other countries.  The only real difference, however, is how much power they have.  In America, their power is limited by democracy.  To see what they WOULD be like with more power, look at where they ARE already  very powerful: in America's educational system -- particularly in the universities and colleges.  They show there the same respect for free-speech and political diversity that Stalin did:  None.  So look to the colleges to see  what the whole country would be like if "liberals" had their way.  It would be a dictatorship.

For more postings from me, see TONGUE-TIED, GREENIE WATCH,   EDUCATION WATCH INTERNATIONAL, AUSTRALIAN POLITICS and  DISSECTING LEFTISM.   My Home Pages are here or   here or   here.  Email me (John Ray) here.  Email me (John Ray) here. 
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